Immature stages, phenology, distribution and host plants of the Andean Moon Moth Cercophana frauenfeldii Felder, 1862 (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

Abstract Cercophana frauenfeldii Felder (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), also known as the "Andean Moon Moth", is a Neotropical species native to continental Chile whose larvae feed on species of the families Gomortegaceae, Laureaceae and Winteraceae. We describe and document C. frauenfeldii immature stages, namely, egg, its four larval instars, and chaetotaxy of the last instar, pupa and cocoon for the first time. In terms of its phenology, we extend its larval activity, originally described to occur between November and mid-December, to June until the end of January. We report the adult flight period depends on the species' distributional range following two well-differentiated patterns: February to mid-April in Central-North Chile and April to June in Central-South Chile. Furthermore, we provide a unified view of its current distributional range and host plants (including the endangered tree Gomortega keule) through bibliographic data, field observations and laboratory rearing. Finally, we discuss aspects of the species' conservation as part of the unique ecosystems found in the temperate forests of southern South-America.

On the natural history of Cosmophyga cortesi Vargas (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), a little-known geometrid moth of the Atacama Desert

Abstract The integration of field work with DNA barcoding is useful to disentangle lepidopteran interactions in nature. Adults of the little-known geometrid moth Cosmophyga cortesi Vargas, 2008 (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) were reared from folivorous larvae collected on the native tree Schinus areira L. (Anacardiaceae) at about 260 and 1500 m elevation in the transverse valleys of the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. Similarity of two DNA barcodes of C. cortesi was 99.7 and 100% with one sequence of an unidentified geometrid larva previously collected in a cell of the potter wasp Hypodynerus andeus (Packard, 1869) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae). This finding represents the first host plant record for C. cortesi, expands its previously documented altitudinal range by more than 1200 m and confirms that its larvae are captured by females of a potter wasp.

A new species of Stenoptilia Hübner (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae) associated with Neobartsia peruviana (Orobanchaceae) in the Andes of northern Chile

Abstract The plume moth genus Stenoptilia Hübner, [1825] (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae) is recorded for the first time from Chile. Adults of Stenoptilia socoromaensis Vargas & Gielis sp. nov. from the northernmost part of the Chilean Andes are described and illustrated. The larvae of S. socoromaensis feed on buds, flowers and unripe fruits of the hemiparasitic plant Neobartsia peruviana (Walp.) Uribe-Convers & Tank (Orobanchaceae). Pairwise distances of a DNA barcode sequence of S. socoromaensis with congeneric species ranged from 9.1 to 12.6% (K2P).

A new species of Macaria Curtis (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Ennominae) from the Andes of northern Chile

Abstract Macaria kruegeri Vargas, Hausmann & Parra sp. nov. is described and illustrated based on adults reared from larvae collected on the shrub Adesmia spinosissima Meyen (Fabaceae) at about 3200 m elevation in the Andes of northern Chile. Macaria kruegeri resembles Macaria alba (Bartlett-Calvert, 1893), described from southern Chile. However, the two species can be accurately separated based on subtle differences in wing pattern and the shape of the valvula of the male genitalia. In addition, there is a DNA barcode divergence (COI gene) of 4.9% between both taxa.

Female genitalia of Pero obtusaria Prout, 1928 (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Abstract The female genitalia of Pero obtusaria Prout, 1928 (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) are described and illustrated for the first time and compared to congenerics. The antrum with the dorsal part sculptured with two sinuous longitudinal stripes enables the identification of this species.

First record of the sedge feeder Bactra verutana Zeller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Chile based on morphology and DNA barcodes

Abstract The sedge-feeding moth Bactra verutana Zeller, 1875 (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae: Olethreutinae: Bactrini), described from Dallas, Texas, USA, is widespread, recorded throughout much North America, Central and South America, including the Caribbean, and Africa. The species is recorded for the first time from Chile based on specimens collected in the coastal valleys of the Atacama Desert, where its larvae feed on Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. var. subnodosus (Nees & Meyen) Kük. (Cyperaceae). A single DNA barcode haplotype, which is widespread in USA, was found in two Chilean specimens sequenced.

Larva, pupa and DNA barcodes of the Neotropical geometrid moth Glena mielkei (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Ennominae: Boarmiini)

ABSTRACT Glena mielkei Vargas, 2010 (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Ennominae: Boarmiini) is a Neotropical geometrid moth native to the Atacama Desert of northern Chile whose larvae are folivorous on the shrub Trixis cacalioides (Asteraecae). The last instar and pupa are described and illustrated, and DNA barcode sequences are provided for the first time for G. mielkei. Descriptions are made based on larvae collected in the type locality. Comparisons with the available descriptions of congeneric species suggest that the chaetotaxy of the SV group of the abdominal segment and the morphology of the cremaster could be useful tools to species identification based on last instar and pupa, respectively. A search in BOLD (Barcode of Life Data System) showed that the only DNA barcode haplotype found in the two specimens sequenced was closest to Physocleora Warren, 1897 than Glena Hulst, 1896. These results coincide with the morphological peculiarities of the genitalia highlighted in the original description of G. mielkei, suggesting that a definitive assessment of the generic status of this geometrid moth deserves further integrative studies.

Sexual dimorphism and population differentiation in the Chilean Neotropical moth Macaria mirthae (Lepidoptera, Geometridae): a wing geometric morphometric example

Abstract Sexual shape dimorphism is the differentiation of male and female organisms based on their shape variation; this definition was proposed for the use of geometric morphometrics analysis where the geometric features of the shape are analyzed without the influence of the size. Macaria mirthae (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) is a moth that inhabits different valleys in the north of Chile principally associated to Acacia macracantha and lately Leucaena leucocephala both trees of the Fabaceae family. The Sexual dimorphism was analyzed in this species in order to corroborate studies on the use of wing as a sexual differentiation trait, and specific influence of localities was also evaluated. A clear shape variation was found where the male wings are more contracted compared to female wings. A climate influence is also suggested that could differentiate the wing shape from the individuals that inhabit two different valleys in the neotropical region of the north of Chile. This research supports previous studies identifying a clear Sexual shape dimorphism in the wing, as a selected trait, suggesting that oviposition and male competition of this group of moths is reflected in their wings. These differences raise the question whether Sexual shape dimorphism can be modulated by natural selection.

Genetic divergence of a newly documented population of the cecidogenous micromoth Eugnosta azapaensis Vargas & Moreira (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile

Abstract Eugnosta azapaensis Vargas and Moreira, 2015 (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is a micromoth native to the Atacama Desert whose larvae induce fusiform galls in shoots of Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. (Asteraceae). The presence of this cecidogenous tortricid was previously recorded only from the type locality, the Azapa Valley, Arica Province, northern Chile. However, fusiform galls on shoots of B. salicifolia were recently found in Chaca, another coastal valley of the Atacama Desert. The adults obtained from these galls were preliminarily identified as E. azapaensis based on morphology. Subsequently, to assess an additional source of evidence for the taxonomic identification of E. azapaensis in this new locality, sequences of the DNA barcode fragment of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I mitochondrial gene from the two localities were analyzed. Four haplotypes were detected, two restricted to Azapa and two restricted to Chaca. The genetic divergence (K2P) between haplotypes of each locality was 0.2-0.8%, while it was 1.1-1.4% between haplotypes of different localities, and 8.7-13.5% between the Chilean haplotypes and other species of Eugnosta Hübner, 1825. In addition, all the sequences of Azapa and Chaca were clustered in a well-supported group in a Maximum Likelihood (ML) analysis. Accordingly, divergence and ML analyses support the morphological identification of E. azapaensis in the Chaca Valley. Furthermore, although preliminary, the analyses suggest that the genetic variation of the populations of this insect could be geographically structured, a pattern that must be assessed in further studies.

A new species of Leurocephala Davis & Mc Kay (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) from the Azapa Valley, northern Chilean Atacama Desert, with notes on life-history

ABSTRACT The Neotropical micromoth genus Leurocephala Davis & Mc Kay, 2011 (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) was originally described to include only the type species, L. schinusae Davis & Mc Kay, 2011, whose leaf miner larvae are associated with Anacardiaceae in Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. An integrative analysis including morphology, life history and DNA barcode sequences revealed that specimens collected on Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae) in the coastal valleys of the Atacama Desert of northern Chile belong to a second species of this formerly monotypic genus. Adults of Leurocephala chilensis Vargas & Moreira sp. nov. are herein described and illustrated in association with the immature stages and life history, and corresponding phylogenetic relationships are assessed based on DNA barcode sequences. This finding provides the first record of Leurocephala from west of the Andes Range, expanding remarkably its geographic range. It is suggested that the extent of diversity within Leurocephala is much greater and that variation in geographic factors and host plant use may have modeled it, an evolutionary hypothesis that should be assessed in further studies.

Egg laying site selection by a host plant specialist leaf miner moth at two intra-plant levels in the northern Chilean Atacama Desert

Egg laying site selection by a host plant specialist leaf miner moth at two intra-plant levels in the northern Chilean Atacama Desert. The spatial distribution of the immature stages of the leaf miner Angelabella tecomae Vargas & Parra, 2005 was determined at two intra-plant levels (shoot and leaflet) on the shrub Tecoma fulva fulva (Cav.) D. Don (Bignoniaceae) in the Azapa valley, northern Chilean Atacama Desert. An aggregated spatial pattern was detected for all the immature stages along the shoot, with an age dependent relative position: eggs and first instar larvae were clumped at apex; second, third and fourth instar larvae were mostly found at intermediate positions; meanwhile the spinning larva and pupa were clumped at basis. This pattern suggests that the females select new, actively growing leaflets for egg laying. At the leaflet level, the immature stages were found more frequently at underside. Furthermore, survivorship was higher for larvae from underside mines. All these results highlight the importance of an accurate selection of egg laying site in the life history of this highly specialized leaf miner. By contrast, eventual wrong choices in the egg laying site selection may be associated with diminished larval survivorship. The importance of the continuous availability of new plant tissue in this highly human modified arid environment is discussed in relation with the observed patterns.

Lycaenid caterpillars (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) eating flowers of Dalea pennellii var. chilensis (Fabaceae) in the northern Chilean Andes

Lycaenid caterpillars (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) eating flowers of Dalea pennellii var. chilensis (Fabaceae) in the northern Chilean Andes. The shrub Dalea pennellii var. chilensis (Fabaceae) is reported for the first time as a host plant for three Neotropical Polyommatini (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Polyommatinae): Hemiargus ramon (Dognin, 1887), Leptotes trigemmatus (Butler, 1881) and Nabokovia faga (Dognin, 1895), based on two collections performed in the western slopes of the northern Chilean Andes in two consecutive summers. The relative abundance was always above 90% for N. faga while it was always less than 5% for H. ramon and L. trigemmatus. Furthermore, N. faga was not found on inflorescences of other native Fabaceae examined in the study site. This pattern suggests a close relationship between N. faga and D. pennellii var. chilensis, at least at a local scale.

External morphology of the immature stages of Neotropical heliconians: IX. Dione glycera (C. Felder & R. Felder) (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae)

External morphology of the immature stages of Neotropical heliconians: IX. Dione glycera (C. Felder & R. Felder) (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae). The biology of the Andean silverspot butterfly Dione glycera (C. Felder & R. Felder, 1861) is still poorly known. This species is restricted to high elevations in the Andes, where the immature stages are found in close association with species of Passiflora belonging to the section Tacsonia (Juss.) Harms, especially P. tripartida var. mollissima (Kunth), which is grown for subsistence by villagers. Herein we describe and illustrate the external features of the egg, larva and pupa of D. glycera, based on light and scanning electron microscopy.

Prey identification in nests of the potter wasp Hypodynerus andeus (Packard) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) using DNA barcodes

Prey identification in nests of the potter wasp Hypodynerus andeus (Packard) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) using DNA barcodes. Geometrid larvae are the only prey known for larvae of the Neotropical potter wasp Hypodynerus andeus (Packard, 1869) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) in the coastal valleys of the northern Chilean Atacama Desert. A fragment of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase c subunit 1 was amplified from geometrid larvae collected from cells of H. andeus in the Azapa Valley, Arica Province, and used to provide taxonomic identifications. Two species, Iridopsis hausmanni Vargas, 2007 and Macaria mirthae Vargas, Parra & Hausmann, 2005 were identified, while three others could be identified only at higher taxonomic levels, because the barcode reference library of geometrid moths is still incomplete for northern Chile.

First host plant records for Iridopsis hausmanni Vargas (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in the coastal valleys of northern Chile

First host plant records for Iridopsis hausmanni Vargas (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in the coastal valleys of northern Chile. The trees Haplorhus peruviana Engl. and Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae) are mentioned as the first host plant records for the little known native moth Iridopsis hausmanni Vargas, 2007 (Lepidoptera, Geometridae, Ennominae) in the coastal valleys of the northern Chilean Atacama Desert. This is also the first record of Anacardiaceae as host plant for a Neotropical species of Iridopsis Warren, 1894.

A replacement name for Hualpenia Mundaca, Parra & Vargas (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae)

A replacement name for Hualpenia Mundaca, Parra & Vargas (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae). Vihualpenia nom. nov. is proposed as a replacement name for Hualpenia Mundaca, Parra & Vargas, 2013 (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae), in order to remove homonymy with Hualpenia Franz, 1996 (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae).

A new genus and species of leaf miner (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) for Chile associated to the native tree Lithraea caustica

A new genus and species of leaf miner (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) for Chile associated to the native tree Lithraea caustica. We propose the new genus and species of Gracillariidae (Lepidoptera) Hualpenia lithraeophaga Mundaca, Parra &Vargas gen. nov., sp. nov., leaf miner of Lithraea caustica (Mol.) H. et Arn (Anacardiaceae) occurring in southern central Chile. Aspects of the life cycle, adult and larval morphology, development and feeding habits of the new genus and species are also presented. We emphasise the uniqueness and importance of this new species for broadening the current knowledge on the Chilean fauna of Gracillariidae.

Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae): first record from Chile and a newly documented host plant / Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae): primeiro registro para o Chile e novo registro de planta hospedeira

Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae): first record from Chile and a newly documented host plant. Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham, 1892 (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) is recorded for the first time from Chile. Male and female adults were reared from leaf-tying larvae collected on Myrica pavonis (Myricaceae), which is a new host plant record for S. smithiana.

Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae): primeiro registro para o Chile e novo registro de planta hospedeira. Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham, 1892 (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) é registrada pela primeira vez para o Chile. Esta é também a primeira menção de Strepsicrates Meyrick, 1888 para o Chile. Macho e fêmea adultos foram criados de larvas coletadas em Myrica pavonis (Myricaceae), que é um novo registro de planta hospedeira para S. smithiana.

First remarks on the nesting biology of Hypodynerus andeus (Packard) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) in the Azapa valley, northern Chile / Primeiras observações sobre a biologia da nidificação de Hypodynerus andeus (Packard) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) no vale de Azapa, norte do Chile

First remarks on the nesting biology of Hypodynerus andeus (Packard) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) in the Azapa valley, northern Chile. Some aspects about the nesting biology of the potter wasp Hypodynerus andeus (Packard, 1869) are reported for the first time. Observations were carried out at the Azapa valley, coastal desert of northern Chile. A total of sixty nests were collected and examined, each composed by 1-14 cells, most of them found attached to concrete lamp posts. The only preys recorded in the cells were Geometridae (Lepidoptera) caterpillars and the presence of the parasitoid Anthrax sp. (Diptera, Bombyliidae) was also recorded. A number of arthropods belonging to different groups, mainly spiders, were found occupying empty nests.

Primeiras observações sobre a biologia da nidificação de Hypodynerus andeus (Packard) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Eumeninae) no vale de Azapa, norte do Chile. Alguns aspectos da biologia da nidificação da vespa Hypodynerus andeus (Packard, 1869) são registrados pela primeira vez. As observações foram conduzidas no vale de Azapa, deserto litoral do norte do Chile. Sessenta ninhos foram coletados e examinados, cada um composto por 1-14 células. A maioria dos ninhos estava aderida a postes de concreto. As únicas presas registradas nas células foram larvas de Geometridae (Lepidoptera). Um parasitóide, Anthrax sp. (Diptera, Bombyliidae), foi também registrado. Vários artrópodes, principalmente aranhas, foram encontrados utilizando ninhos vazios.

A new species of Eupithecia Curtis (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) from the Azapa Valley, northern Chile

A new species of Eupithecia Curtis (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) from the Azapa Valley, northern Chile. Male and female adults of a new species of Eupithecia Curtis from the Arica Province, Chile are described and illustrated. The species is compared with E. yubitzae Vargas & Parra, 2004, from the same locality, and E. galapagosata Landry & Rindge 1995, from the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador.

Uma nova espécie de Eupithecia Curtis (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) do Vale de Azapa, norte do Chile. Macho e fêmea de uma nova espécie de Eupithecia Curtis da Província de Arica, Chile são descritos e ilustrados. A espécie é comparada com E. yubitzae Vargas & Parra, 2004, da mesma localidade, e E. galapagosata Landry & Rindge 1995, das Ilhas Galápagos, Equador.